memphisgundown.org – William McKinley, the 25th president of the United States, is often remembered for his domestic economic policies, but his foreign policy played an equally transformative role in shaping the nation’s trajectory during his administration. Serving from 1897 to 1901, McKinley presided over a period of significant change in both American foreign relations and its role in global affairs. His presidency marked the beginning of America’s emergence as a global power, both economically and militarily. McKinley’s approach to foreign policy, characterized by pragmatism, strategic expansionism, and careful diplomacy, not only responded to immediate international events but also laid the foundation for the United States’ dominant global presence in the 20th century.
This article examines McKinley’s foreign policy and the key events that defined it, including the Spanish-American War, the acquisition of overseas territories, the annexation of Hawaii, and the Open Door Policy. Through these events, McKinley’s presidency witnessed the United States’ transformation from a continental power to an imperial one, with an expanded influence in the Caribbean, the Pacific, and beyond.
The World Stage in McKinley’s Time
The Age of Imperialism
The late 19th century was a period marked by the rise of imperialism, as European powers and Japan expanded their empires through colonization and territorial acquisitions. In this environment, the United States, traditionally focused on domestic affairs and westward expansion, began to reassess its role on the world stage. The rise of industrialization and global trade, coupled with the increasing competition among European powers, presented both challenges and opportunities for the United States.
As McKinley entered the presidency in 1897, the country found itself at a crossroads. It had recently closed its frontier, and a new foreign policy vision was needed. McKinley and his advisors began to explore a more active approach to international relations—one that recognized the growing economic and military power of the U.S. and aimed to secure its place in the rapidly changing global landscape.
McKinley’s Approach to Foreign Policy
McKinley’s foreign policy was guided by a pragmatic combination of American ideals, economic interests, and the desire for global influence. He understood that the U.S. needed to build and maintain strong economic and military ties with the rest of the world, while avoiding the entanglements of European political conflicts. He sought to expand America’s influence without becoming embroiled in unnecessary wars or conflicts that could divert attention from domestic issues.
McKinley’s foreign policy, therefore, was a balancing act—an approach that sought to enhance the United States’ power while still adhering to the principles of non-intervention and a preference for peaceful diplomacy. He largely avoided the aggressive, interventionist policies of his successor, Theodore Roosevelt, yet McKinley’s foreign policy decisions set the stage for the more assertive global role that America would take on in the years to come.
The Spanish-American War: A Defining Moment
The Lead-Up to War
The Spanish-American War of 1898 was arguably the most defining event of McKinley’s presidency and a turning point in American foreign policy. The war arose out of a combination of factors, including the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain, American economic interests in the Caribbean, and rising public pressure for intervention. The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor in February 1898, which killed 266 American sailors, was the immediate catalyst that pushed the United States toward war.
While McKinley was initially hesitant to engage in a conflict with Spain, he faced mounting political and public pressure to act. Influential newspapers, particularly those controlled by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, used sensationalist reporting to inflame public opinion and advocate for war. These “yellow” journalists portrayed Spain as a brutal colonial power, especially in its treatment of Cuban insurgents. Their reporting generated widespread sympathy for the Cuban cause and anger toward Spain, contributing to a growing sense of nationalism.
McKinley’s Decision to Go to War
Despite the growing calls for war, McKinley was initially reluctant to intervene in the Cuban conflict. He was concerned about the cost of war, the potential for entanglement in European affairs, and the uncertainty of public support. McKinley favored diplomacy and sought to resolve the crisis through peaceful means, but Spain’s continued repression of Cuban rebels and the failure to negotiate a settlement led to the United States declaring war on Spain in April 1898.
McKinley’s decision to go to war was influenced by the strategic interests of the U.S., including the protection of American economic investments in Cuba and the Philippines, the expansion of American influence in the Caribbean, and the need to assert the country’s power in the face of European imperialism. The war would have profound implications for the United States and its future as a world power.
The War’s Outcome and Aftermath
The Spanish-American War was short but decisive. The United States achieved a resounding victory over Spain, with major battles fought in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. As a result of the Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898, Spain ceded control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. The Philippines was acquired for $20 million, marking the United States’ first significant overseas territorial acquisition and signaling its new role as an imperial power.
The war marked a dramatic shift in American foreign policy, as the United States emerged as a colonial power with overseas territories. The acquisition of these territories—particularly the Philippines—sparked a national debate over imperialism, with critics arguing that the U.S. was abandoning its principles of self-determination and non-intervention. However, McKinley and his supporters believed that the acquisition of territories like the Philippines was essential to securing American influence in Asia and the Pacific.
The Annexation of Hawaii: Expanding the Pacific Empire
The Importance of Hawaii
Before the Spanish-American War, McKinley’s administration had already made significant moves in the Pacific. One of the earliest and most important foreign policy actions during McKinley’s presidency was the annexation of Hawaii in 1898. Hawaii was a strategically important location in the Pacific, serving as a crucial stopover for American ships traveling between Asia and the West Coast.
The annexation of Hawaii had been a contentious issue for several years. American settlers in Hawaii had long pushed for closer ties with the United States, and in 1893, a group of American planters and businessmen had overthrown the Hawaiian monarchy and established a provisional government. President Grover Cleveland, McKinley’s predecessor, had opposed annexation, but McKinley, upon taking office, was more sympathetic to the idea.
In 1898, after the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, McKinley recognized the strategic importance of Hawaii in securing American interests in the Pacific. With the support of Congress, he signed a resolution to annex the Hawaiian Islands, making Hawaii a U.S. territory. The annexation of Hawaii was a key moment in McKinley’s broader strategy to expand American influence in the Pacific and secure the United States’ position as a global power.
The Open Door Policy: Protecting American Interests in China
Challenges in Asia
While McKinley’s foreign policy was focused primarily on the Caribbean and Pacific, his administration also faced challenges in Asia, particularly in China. At the turn of the 20th century, China was being divided into spheres of influence by European powers and Japan, and American businesses were concerned about the ability to access Chinese markets. In response, McKinley sought to assert American influence in the region through the implementation of the Open Door Policy.
The Open Door Notes
The Open Door Policy was outlined in a series of diplomatic notes, first articulated by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay in 1899 and 1900. The policy called for equal trading rights for all foreign nations in China, without the establishment of exclusive economic privileges for any single nation. McKinley and Hay hoped that the policy would protect American economic interests in China while also promoting the principle of territorial integrity for the Chinese Empire.
Although the Open Door Policy was not universally embraced by all powers, it marked a critical moment in the United States’ expansion into Asia. The policy laid the groundwork for future American involvement in the region and helped secure China as an important trading partner for the United States.
Conclusion: McKinley’s Foreign Policy Legacy
William McKinley’s foreign policy was a defining feature of his presidency, marking the transition of the United States from a nation focused primarily on continental expansion to a global power with overseas territories and growing international influence. Through his leadership during the Spanish-American War, the annexation of Hawaii, and the formulation of the Open Door Policy, McKinley set the stage for the United States’ more assertive foreign policy in the 20th century.
While McKinley’s foreign policy was often cautious and pragmatic, it also reflected the rise of American imperial ambitions and the country’s increasing engagement in global affairs. His presidency helped to solidify the United States’ position as a rising global power, and the legacy of his foreign policy decisions would shape the course of American diplomacy for decades to come. McKinley’s strategic vision, his ability to balance military action with diplomatic negotiation, and his role in the expansion of American influence all played an essential part in the making of a global power.